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Europe’s best high-school systems
22 European high-school systems, compared by country: PISA 2022 scores in mathematics, reading and science, equity, teachers and access for families who move.
Questions the analysis answers
- In which European countries do high-school pupils learn best?
- Where do results depend least on the pupil’s family?
- Where is it easiest for a Romanian family that moves?
The ranking
22 positions scored on 14 conditions adapted to this topic. 3 conditions are computed from public data using published formulas; the rest are judgement, with a rationale and sources for each position. Conditions that cannot be assessed yet get 5 (neutral) in the score and do not count as met. The scores are frozen in the snapshot of 3 November 2026 (fingerprint in the .sha256 file).
Extended to 22 entries on 5 November 2026: the first 11 keep the same scores, and 11 new entries were added, with sources. The previous snapshot stays published: social-licee-europa-2026-11-03.json.
| # | Name | Conditions | Score | Substance / form |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Ireland | 12/14 | 7.60 | Substance without form |
| 2 | Estonia | 11/14 | 8.16 | Substance without form |
| 3 | Switzerland | 10/14 | 7.64 | Substance confirmed |
| 4 | Finland | 10/14 | 7.12 | Substance confirmed |
| 5 | Denmark | 9/14 | 7.06 | Substance without form |
| 6 | Poland | 8/14 | 6.84 | Substance without form |
| 7 | Czechia | 8/14 | 6.66 | Substance without form |
| 8 | United Kingdom | 7/14 | 6.92 | Substance without form |
| 9 | Netherlands | 6/14 | 6.70 | Substance confirmed |
| 10 | Belgium | 6/14 | 6.58 | Substance confirmed |
| 11 | Austria | 6/14 | 6.58 | Substance confirmed |
| 12 | Sweden | 6/14 | 6.50 | Substance without form |
| 13 | Slovenia | 6/14 | 6.36 | Substance without form |
| 14 | Norway | 6/14 | 6.04 | Substance confirmed |
| 15 | Germany | 5/14 | 6.14 | Substance confirmed |
| 16 | Lithuania | 4/14 | 6.26 | Substance without form |
| 17 | Spain | 4/14 | 6.06 | Substance without form |
| 18 | France | 4/14 | 5.90 | Substance confirmed |
| 19 | Italy | 4/14 | 5.76 | Substance without form |
| 20 | Latvia | 3/14 | 6.42 | Substance without form |
| 21 | Portugal | 3/14 | 6.02 | Substance without form |
| 22 | Hungary | 3/14 | 5.72 | Substance without form |
Each position, condition by condition
Ireland · 12/14 · score 7.60 · Substance without form
First in the EU and the OECD in reading (516) and good science results (504); teaching in English, so easy access for families who move there.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 7 | Among the best mathematics scores in Europe. Data: mathematics: 492 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 10 | Among the best reading scores in Europe. Data: reading: 516 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 8 | Among the best science scores in Europe. Data: science: 504 points |
| C4 | Equity | 8 | Good results for pupils from modest families too. |
| C5 | Top performers | 8 | Many top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 7 | Very well trained and respected teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 6 | Diverse paths, unequally respected. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 9 | Pupils speak foreign languages well. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 8 | Easy to access (for example, teaching in English). |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 7 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 7 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 7 | Low pressure, late selection. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education); OECD, PISA 2022, Volume I: how countries performed
Estonia · 11/14 · score 8.16 · Substance without form
Europe’s best school system in PISA 2022: first in science (526), joint first in mathematics (510) and reading (511). Very good results for pupils from modest families too.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 10 | Among the best mathematics scores in Europe. Data: mathematics: 510 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 10 | Among the best reading scores in Europe. Data: reading: 511 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 10 | Among the best science scores in Europe. Data: science: 526 points |
| C4 | Equity | 9 | Good results for pupils from modest families too. |
| C5 | Top performers | 9 | Many top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 7 | Very well trained and respected teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 6 | Diverse paths, unequally respected. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 7 | Pupils speak foreign languages well. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 6 | Accessible with effort. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 7 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 8 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 7 | Low pressure, late selection. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education); OECD, PISA 2022, Volume I: how countries performed
Switzerland · 10/14 · score 7.64 · Substance confirmed
Joint first in Europe in mathematics (508), with a dual system in which apprenticeship is as respected as academic high school; reading is weaker (483).
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 10 | Among the best mathematics scores in Europe. Data: mathematics: 508 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 6 | Close to the OECD average in reading. Data: reading: 483 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 8 | Among the best science scores in Europe. Data: science: 503 points |
| C4 | Equity | 7 | Good results for pupils from modest families too. |
| C5 | Top performers | 9 | Many top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 9 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 9 | Very well trained and respected teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 10 | High school and apprenticeship, both of quality. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 8 | Pupils speak foreign languages well. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 4 | Hard to access for a newly arrived family. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 7 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 7 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 5 | Moderate pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education); OECD, PISA 2022, Volume I: how countries performed
Finland · 10/14 · score 7.12 · Substance confirmed
Very well trained and respected teachers and Europe’s second-best science score (511); results have fallen steadily since 2006.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 6 | Close to the OECD average in mathematics. Data: mathematics: 484 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 7 | Among the best reading scores in Europe. Data: reading: 490 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 9 | Among the best science scores in Europe. Data: science: 511 points |
| C4 | Equity | 8 | Good results for pupils from modest families too. |
| C5 | Top performers | 7 | Many top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 10 | Very well trained and respected teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 7 | High school and apprenticeship, both of quality. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 7 | Pupils speak foreign languages well. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 5 | Accessible with effort. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 7 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 8 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 4 | Early selection and high pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education); OECD, PISA 2022, Volume I: how countries performed
Denmark · 9/14 · score 7.06 · Substance without form
Balanced results (489, 489, 494) and small gaps between pupils; English is very well mastered.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 7 | Among the best mathematics scores in Europe. Data: mathematics: 489 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 7 | Among the best reading scores in Europe. Data: reading: 489 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 6 | Close to the OECD average in science. Data: science: 494 points |
| C4 | Equity | 8 | Good results for pupils from modest families too. |
| C5 | Top performers | 6 | An average share of top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 8 | Very well trained and respected teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 7 | High school and apprenticeship, both of quality. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 9 | Pupils speak foreign languages well. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 5 | Accessible with effort. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 7 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 7 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 6 | Moderate pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education); OECD, PISA 2022, Volume I: how countries performed
Poland · 8/14 · score 6.84 · Substance without form
One of Europe’s great education successes of the past two decades; mathematics 489, science 499. Results fell compared with 2018, as in most of Europe.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 7 | Among the best mathematics scores in Europe. Data: mathematics: 489 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 7 | Among the best reading scores in Europe. Data: reading: 489 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 7 | Among the best science scores in Europe. Data: science: 499 points |
| C4 | Equity | 7 | Good results for pupils from modest families too. |
| C5 | Top performers | 7 | Many top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 6 | Well-trained teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 6 | Diverse paths, unequally respected. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 6 | Foreign languages learned moderately. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 6 | Accessible with effort. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 7 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 8 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 6 | Moderate pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education); OECD, PISA 2022, Volume I: how countries performed
Czechia · 8/14 · score 6.66 · Substance without form
Above the OECD average (487, 489, 498), but the link between family background and results is stronger than in northern Europe.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 7 | Among the best mathematics scores in Europe. Data: mathematics: 487 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 7 | Among the best reading scores in Europe. Data: reading: 489 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 7 | Among the best science scores in Europe. Data: science: 498 points |
| C4 | Equity | 5 | Average equity. |
| C5 | Top performers | 7 | Many top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 6 | Well-trained teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 7 | High school and apprenticeship, both of quality. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 6 | Foreign languages learned moderately. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 6 | Accessible with effort. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 7 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 7 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 6 | Moderate pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education); OECD, PISA 2022, Volume I: how countries performed
United Kingdom · 7/14 · score 6.92 · Substance without form
Above the OECD average in all three subjects (489, 494, 500) and teaching in English; large gaps between schools and regions.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 7 | Among the best mathematics scores in Europe. Data: mathematics: 489 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 8 | Among the best reading scores in Europe. Data: reading: 494 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 7 | Among the best science scores in Europe. Data: science: 500 points |
| C4 | Equity | 6 | Average equity. |
| C5 | Top performers | 8 | Many top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 9 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 6 | Well-trained teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 6 | Diverse paths, unequally respected. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 9 | Pupils speak foreign languages well. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 8 | Easy to access (for example, teaching in English). |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 6 | Moderate attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 6 | Results stable or falling slightly. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 6 | Moderate pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education); OECD, PISA 2022, Volume I: how countries performed
Netherlands · 6/14 · score 6.70 · Substance confirmed
The second-best mathematics in the EU after Estonia (493), but a sharp drop in reading (459); early tracking into different paths is a sensitive point.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 8 | Among the best mathematics scores in Europe. Data: mathematics: 493 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 3 | Below the European average in reading. Data: reading: 459 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in science. Data: science: 488 points |
| C4 | Equity | 6 | Average equity. |
| C5 | Top performers | 8 | Many top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 7 | Very well trained and respected teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 9 | High school and apprenticeship, both of quality. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 10 | Pupils speak foreign languages well. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 5 | Accessible with effort. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 6 | Moderate attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 6 | Results stable or falling slightly. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 4 | Early selection and high pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education); OECD, PISA 2022, Volume I: how countries performed
Belgium · 6/14 · score 6.58 · Substance confirmed
Good results in mathematics (489) and science (491), but large gaps between the Flemish and French communities and between schools.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 7 | Among the best mathematics scores in Europe. Data: mathematics: 489 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 6 | Close to the OECD average in reading. Data: reading: 479 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 6 | Close to the OECD average in science. Data: science: 491 points |
| C4 | Equity | 5 | Average equity. |
| C5 | Top performers | 8 | Many top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 6 | Well-trained teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 8 | High school and apprenticeship, both of quality. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 8 | Pupils speak foreign languages well. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 5 | Accessible with effort. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 6 | Moderate attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 7 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 5 | Moderate pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education); OECD, PISA 2022, Volume I: how countries performed
Austria · 6/14 · score 6.58 · Substance confirmed
Above the OECD average in mathematics (487) and science (491), with a highly respected apprenticeship system; early tracking at age 10 widens social gaps.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 7 | Among the best mathematics scores in Europe. Data: mathematics: 487 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 6 | Close to the OECD average in reading. Data: reading: 480 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 6 | Close to the OECD average in science. Data: science: 491 points |
| C4 | Equity | 5 | Average equity. |
| C5 | Top performers | 8 | Many top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 7 | Very well trained and respected teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 9 | High school and apprenticeship, both of quality. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 7 | Pupils speak foreign languages well. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 5 | Accessible with effort. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 6 | Moderate attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 6 | Results stable or falling slightly. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 5 | Moderate pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: the results snapshot table; OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education)
Sweden · 6/14 · score 6.50 · Substance without form
Reading 487 and science 494; the 2022 fall wiped out much of the progress made between 2012 and 2018.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 6 | Close to the OECD average in mathematics. Data: mathematics: 482 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 7 | Among the best reading scores in Europe. Data: reading: 487 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 6 | Close to the OECD average in science. Data: science: 494 points |
| C4 | Equity | 6 | Average equity. |
| C5 | Top performers | 6 | An average share of top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 7 | Very well trained and respected teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 6 | Diverse paths, unequally respected. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 8 | Pupils speak foreign languages well. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 4 | Hard to access for a newly arrived family. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 7 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 7 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 6 | Moderate pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: the results snapshot table; OECD, PISA 2022, Volume I: how countries performed
Slovenia · 6/14 · score 6.36 · Substance without form
Mathematics 485 and science 500, above the OECD average; reading (469) is the weak point.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 6 | Close to the OECD average in mathematics. Data: mathematics: 485 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 4 | Below the European average in reading. Data: reading: 469 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 7 | Among the best science scores in Europe. Data: science: 500 points |
| C4 | Equity | 7 | Good results for pupils from modest families too. |
| C5 | Top performers | 6 | An average share of top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 6 | Well-trained teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 7 | High school and apprenticeship, both of quality. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 6 | Foreign languages learned moderately. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 4 | Hard to access for a newly arrived family. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 7 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 8 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 6 | Moderate pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education); OECD, PISA 2022, Volume I: how countries performed
Norway · 6/14 · score 6.04 · Substance confirmed
Well-funded, fair schools, but results (468, 477, 478) fell sharply in 2022, more than in most countries.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 4 | Below the European average in mathematics. Data: mathematics: 468 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in reading. Data: reading: 477 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 4 | Below the European average in science. Data: science: 478 points |
| C4 | Equity | 7 | Good results for pupils from modest families too. |
| C5 | Top performers | 6 | An average share of top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 8 | Very well trained and respected teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 6 | Diverse paths, unequally respected. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 9 | Pupils speak foreign languages well. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 4 | Hard to access for a newly arrived family. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 7 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 7 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 4 | Early selection and high pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education); OECD, PISA 2022, Volume I: how countries performed
Germany · 5/14 · score 6.14 · Substance confirmed
Science 492, above the OECD average, but 2022 brought Germany’s weakest results ever measured in all three subjects.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in mathematics. Data: mathematics: 475 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 6 | Close to the OECD average in reading. Data: reading: 480 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 6 | Close to the OECD average in science. Data: science: 492 points |
| C4 | Equity | 5 | Average equity. |
| C5 | Top performers | 8 | Many top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 6 | Well-trained teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 8 | High school and apprenticeship, both of quality. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 7 | Pupils speak foreign languages well. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 4 | Hard to access for a newly arrived family. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 6 | Moderate attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 7 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 5 | Moderate pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: the results snapshot table; OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education)
Lithuania · 4/14 · score 6.26 · Substance without form
Results close to the OECD average (475, 472, 484) and stable over time, unlike the falls in most countries.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in mathematics. Data: mathematics: 475 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in reading. Data: reading: 472 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in science. Data: science: 484 points |
| C4 | Equity | 6 | Average equity. |
| C5 | Top performers | 6 | An average share of top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 6 | Well-trained teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 6 | Diverse paths, unequally respected. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 6 | Foreign languages learned moderately. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 6 | Accessible with effort. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 8 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 8 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 7 | Low pressure, late selection. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Spain · 4/14 · score 6.06 · Substance without form
Results close to the OECD average (473, 474, 485), with small gaps between students, but a high rate of grade repetition.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in mathematics. Data: mathematics: 473 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in reading. Data: reading: 474 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in science. Data: science: 485 points |
| C4 | Equity | 6 | Average equity. |
| C5 | Top performers | 6 | An average share of top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 6 | Well-trained teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 7 | High school and apprenticeship, both of quality. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 6 | Foreign languages learned moderately. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 6 | Accessible with effort. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 7 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 7 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 5 | Moderate pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
France · 4/14 · score 5.90 · Substance confirmed
Results around the OECD average (474, 474, 487), but with one of Europe’s strongest links between family background and results.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in mathematics. Data: mathematics: 474 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in reading. Data: reading: 474 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in science. Data: science: 487 points |
| C4 | Equity | 5 | Average equity. |
| C5 | Top performers | 7 | Many top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 6 | Well-trained teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 8 | High school and apprenticeship, both of quality. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 8 | Pupils speak foreign languages well. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 4 | Hard to access for a newly arrived family. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 6 | Moderate attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 6 | Results stable or falling slightly. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 4 | Early selection and high pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education)
Italy · 4/14 · score 5.76 · Substance without form
Reading 482, above the OECD average, but mathematics (471) and science (477) below it; large differences between the north and south of the country.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 4 | Below the European average in mathematics. Data: mathematics: 471 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 6 | Close to the OECD average in reading. Data: reading: 482 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 4 | Below the European average in science. Data: science: 477 points |
| C4 | Equity | 5 | Average equity. |
| C5 | Top performers | 6 | An average share of top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 6 | Well-trained teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 7 | High school and apprenticeship, both of quality. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 6 | Foreign languages learned moderately. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 5 | Accessible with effort. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 7 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 7 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 5 | Moderate pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education); OECD, PISA 2022, Volume I: how countries performed
Latvia · 3/14 · score 6.42 · Substance without form
Mathematics 483 and science 494, above the OECD average, with results stable since 2018; the data deviated from PISA sampling standards.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 6 | Close to the OECD average in mathematics. Data: mathematics: 483 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in reading. Data: reading: 475 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 6 | Close to the OECD average in science. Data: science: 494 points |
| C4 | Equity | 6 | Average equity. |
| C5 | Top performers | 6 | An average share of top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 6 | Well-trained teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 6 | Diverse paths, unequally respected. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 6 | Foreign languages learned moderately. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 6 | Accessible with effort. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 8 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 8 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 6 | Moderate pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: the results snapshot table; OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education)
Portugal · 3/14 · score 6.02 · Substance without form
Results close to the OECD average (472, 477, 484), after two decades of progress; it fell in 2022, like most countries.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in mathematics. Data: mathematics: 472 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in reading. Data: reading: 477 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in science. Data: science: 484 points |
| C4 | Equity | 6 | Average equity. |
| C5 | Top performers | 6 | An average share of top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 6 | Well-trained teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 6 | Diverse paths, unequally respected. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 6 | Foreign languages learned moderately. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 6 | Accessible with effort. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 7 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 7 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 5 | Moderate pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Sources: OECD, PISA 2022: mean scores by country (annex published by Singapore’s Ministry of Education); OECD, PISA 2022, Volume I: how countries performed
Hungary · 3/14 · score 5.72 · Substance without form
Results close to the OECD average (473, 473, 486), but large differences between schools according to students’ social background.
| # | Condition | Score | In plain words |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in mathematics. Data: mathematics: 473 points |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in reading. Data: reading: 473 points |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | 5 | Close to the OECD average in science. Data: science: 486 points |
| C4 | Equity | 4 | Results depend heavily on family. |
| C5 | Top performers | 6 | An average share of top performers. |
| C6 | Free public education | 10 | Very good, free state high schools. |
| C7 | Teachers | 5 | Well-trained teachers. |
| C8 | Diverse paths | 6 | Diverse paths, unequally respected. |
| C9 | Foreign languages | 6 | Foreign languages learned moderately. |
| C10 | Access for families who move | 5 | Accessible with effort. |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | 7 | Balanced attention. |
| C12 | Trend | 7 | Results are rising. |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | 5 | Moderate pressure. |
| C14 | Risks | — | Cannot be assessed yet (for example, the asset is not publicly traded). |
Formulas for the computed conditions
- C1: Mathematics, PISA 2022: score = (the score − 440) / 7 (510 gives 10, 489 gives 7).
- C2: Reading, PISA 2022: score = (the score − 440) / 7.
- C3: Science, PISA 2022: score = (the score − 450) / 7 (500 gives 7).
The data behind the scores
The analysis’s sources
What the analysis shows
Ireland meets the most conditions (12 of 14). The ranking rewards substance: real results and real opportunities, weighed against how hard and how expensive they are to reach, not only fame.
The rankings are indicative and rest on public data as of the snapshot date. The right choice depends on each person’s situation.
How we apply the 14 conditions in this domain
The same algorithm as for crypto, companies and commodities: each condition gets a score from 0 to 10 and is met from 7. The weights are identical in every domain; only what we measure in practice changes.
| # | Condition | What we measure | Weight |
|---|---|---|---|
| C1 | Mathematics (PISA) | The mean score of 15-year-olds in mathematics, PISA 2022. | 16% |
| C2 | Reading (PISA) | The mean reading score, PISA 2022. | 6% |
| C3 | Science (PISA) | The mean science score, PISA 2022. | 6% |
| C4 | Equity | How little results depend on family background. | 8% |
| C5 | Top performers | The share of pupils with very good results. | 6% |
| C6 | Free public education | Good state high schools, with no fees. | 8% |
| C7 | Teachers | Teachers’ training, status and pay. | 8% |
| C8 | Diverse paths | Academic high school and quality apprenticeships, both respected. | 4% |
| C9 | Foreign languages | How well pupils learn foreign languages. | 6% |
| C10 | Access for families who move | The language of instruction and ease of entering the system. | 6% |
| C11 | Media (non-linear) | Balanced attention; famous “models” can be overrated. | 6% |
| C12 | Trend | Results rising or falling compared with earlier tests. | 6% |
| C13 | Crowding (inverse) | Early selection and pressure on pupils. | 6% |
| C14 | Risks | Teacher shortages, inequalities, sudden reforms. | 8% |
Questions about the reasoning
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Sources
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